During the first part of the 1800's the Catholic bishops in the United Stated faced many and varied challenges. The vision and creative approach of Bishop John England to these challenges stands out.

Our Catholic Roots 1492—1865

11. Church Development, 1820-1829
Archbishop Maréchal had informed Rome in 1818 that the American Catholic Community was being transformed by the large number of Catholics immigrating from Europe. Had he written his letter only two years later, Maréchal might well have observed that a single one of these new immigrants was doing much to transform the American church all by himself. The young man's name was John England, and he was the newly appointed Bishop of the new Diocese of Charleston, South Carolina. Talent and vision would give to him, rather than to the archbishops of Baltimore, the real leadership of the American church for the next two decades.

Bishop John England, at the beginning of his ministry as Bishop of Charleston

Bishop John England
Fresh from Ireland and ordained a bishop only weeks before, John England was just thirty-four years old when he, his sister, and a priest-secretary sailed into Charleston harbor aboard the Thomas Gelston. It was a few days after Christmas of 1820, and the weather was decidedly cold. But the weather was nothing compared to the chilling facts he learned about the new diocese he had been appointed to establish. Carved out of the Archdiocese of Baltimore, the Diocese of Charleston encompassed three states: North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. That gave Bishop England a total of 140,000 square miles-but only 5,000 Catholics. The people of his diocese and most of the South were, and still remain, overwhelmingly Protestant. In addition, there were major problems with trustees, a total of but two churches, and only a handful of priests.

Even if his diocese was no prize, John England was an unusually young priest to receive the honor of being named a bishop by the pope. Before long, however, the wisdom of his appointment was clear to almost all. He tackled the problems of the diocese with his customary energy, confidence, and creativity. Just weeks after his arrival, he took a fast tour through the territory and got a clear sense of what needed doing. And then he set about doing it.

His first priority was to restore peace within the local Catholic community. For twenty years prior to England's arrival, the church in Charleston had been racked by almost continuous strife. The issue was control. The label was trusteeism.

Getting to church on Sunday meant a long hard journey for many families.

Trusteeism in Charleston

Father Simon Felix Gallagher, Irish born, was the long-time pastor of St. Mary's Church, Charleston. Famous around the country as a brilliant preacher, he was also a popular figure around town because of his quick wit and his ready willingness to join with friendly drinking companions. This latter habit helped keep him in the center of trouble, sometimes as its cause and other times as its victim.

Earlier, Archbishop Carroll had temporarily suspended Gallagher from his priestly duties. This was punishment for his riotous partying in company with the parish trustees. Later, these same trustees had turned against Gallagher for a while, and had come very close to forcing him out of the parish. Since he was at times unable to perform his duties, Gallagher had secured the temporary assistance of Father Robert Browne, an Augustinian priest also from Ireland. However, the next archbishop, Leonard Neale, assigned the French priest Father Clorivière to Charleston, and ordered Browne to return to his post in Georgia. Browne refused to leave Charleston. Instead, he and Gallagher played upon the habitual dislike that English-speaking Americans had for the French clergy, and stirred up the trustees against the French priest.

Claiming that they alone had the power to decide who their priests would be, the trustees then refused Clorivière admittance to the parish. Neale responded by suspending the disobedient priests and by attempting to close down St. Mary's Church with an interdict. But it was to no avail. The two priests continued to preach and administer the sacraments, and, with the help of the trustees, conspired to form an independent Catholic church. They even began a search for a bishop of their own who was not appointed by the pope.

This was the state of affairs at the moment of John England's arrival. A large segment of the church in Charleston had fallen into schism, and it was no longer united with the Catholic Church by the bonds of either charity or obedience.

A gathering of Catholics form all over the world at St. Peter's in Rome.

The Unity and Catholicity of the Catholic Church
The Catholic Church bears the name "catholic," which means universal, because it reaches out to embrace all people, of all time, and of all places. The unity, or oneness, of the Catholic Church has three aspects:

1. Unity in Faith. All Catholics are one with the universal church and with its leaders, the pope and the bishops, in believing and teaching what Jesus taught. The church has the right and the obligation to teach all that Jesus taught. This official teaching power is called the magisterium.

2. Unity in Charity. Church unity also means that Catholics are bound together and made one by charity: the love they must have for God, for each other, and for themselves.

3. Unity in Discipline. Church unity also means that Catholics show respect for properly appointed church leaders and obey the reasonable rules established by them.

This threefold unity of the Catholic Church can be violated in three ways:

1. Heresy—refusing to believe all that Christ taught, or believing something that he did not teach

2. failing to love god, self, and neighbor as Christ taught.

3. Schism—denying the authority of properly appointed church officials, and refusing to obey their just and reasonable rules.

Clergy guilty of misconduct or of violating the unity of the church in one way or another may be punished by being suspended by their bishop. Suspension temporarily deprives a priest of his right to function as a priest; that is, he cannot teach, preach, or administer the sacraments. Clergy and laity guilty of certain serious sins or major violations of the unity of the church may be excommunicated by their bishop. By excommunication a person is cut off from the community of the church and is forbidden to receive its sacraments, especially the Eucharist.

Parishes guilty of major violations of the unity of the church may be placed under interdict by their bishop. That is, their church is closed and their priest are forbidden to offer anyone the sacraments, except in cases where a person is in danger of death.

Bishop England's Accomplishments
Bishop England's first response to the challenge of schism was both peaceful and wise. Giving not the least hint of anger or revenge, he took no legal action and imposed no church penalties on the troublemakers. Instead, he cordially greeted the two priests but gave them no assignments. He quietly negotiated a three-year lease of St. Mary's Church from the trustees, rather than making himself their hostage by using a church they controlled. At the same time, he arranged for the construction of another church which could be designated as Charleston's cathedral. He did what he had been ordained to do: he watched over and ministered to the people as their priest.

Before long, the great majority of Charleston's Catholic community found themselves touched by the openness and kindness of their new bishop. They recognized in him a true spiritual shepherd, and they followed his lead. The trustees, for the most part, were left talking to themselves. Gallagher departed for Florida with England's blessing. Arranging a full reconciliation with the stubborn trustees would take more time and considerable patience on the part of the new bishop. It was already clear, however, that he had won the contest in Charleston. And he had done it as a man of peace.

Christians of all churches eagerly took the opportunity to hear good preaching, even in roadsides and street corners.

The Protestant example
American Catholics lived in a new land that was predominantly Protestant. They watched carefully as their Protestant neighbors organized local churches without any reference to church authorities beyond their own community. These Protestants were fiercely proud of their independence, and often made sneering comments about Catholics being slaves of the pope and agents of a foreign power. Quite naturally, Catholics felt the pinch of being a disdained minority, out of step with their adopted culture.

In a desire for acceptance and equality with their neighbors, they looked hard at the way Protestants organized their churches. They asked themselves why it wouldn't be possible to operate quite independently with respect to temporal affairs and church finances. They felt they could do this while remaining totally obedient to the spiritual and teaching authority of the church.

Absence of authority
In addition to the independent ideas that they were getting from their Protestant neighbors, American Catholics had to face some very tough realities. They lacked priests and churches, and the help that usually came from a diocese and a bishop. When they wanted parishes in the new land, they had to build them on their own. And when that was done, they had either to search out a priest or find alternate ways of providing for their own spiritual needs. In many cases, laymen and laywomen became the spiritual supervisors of their communities, leading their neighbors in prayer meetings and Bible readings, and helping to organize the religious instruction of their children.

Since someone had to own the church property and attend to its business, the parishioners usually elected a board of trustees from among their supporting members. The board then sought incorporation under the laws of the state and became the legal owner of the parish property. This experience of doing things on their own gave American Catholics a taste of independence from church authority. It often inclined them to think they ought to be able to make all their decisions locally, without reference to the church as a whole. Sometimes this experience left them with the attitude that their priest was a hired employee.

Choice of priests
When, eventually, dioceses were created and bishops were appointed, a further complication arose. The priests available for assignment were not only few in number but extremely varied in talent and virtue. Moreover, many of them barely spoke the language of the community.

In such circumstances, the influence of Protestant custom and democratic national values was powerful. Imitating their Protestant friends, American Catholics had come to expect and demand from their priests not only a reverent service but good preaching. And often their expectations were frustrated, especially by French priests attempting to preach to English-speaking or German-speaking congregations. Drawing upon their democratic belief in self-determination, parishioners felt free to take direct action. Frequently, trustees used their absolute control of parish properties and finances to reject a priest sent by the bishop, and instead shopped around for someone better equipped to fill their needs.

Thus the system of local church organization that had emerged in America by the time of Bishop England's arrival in 1820 was both a success and a failure. On the one hand, it represented a bold response to a serious need within the Church, and a creative effort to adapt Catholic church structures to a predominantly Protestant and democratic environment. On the other hand, in many parishes it was a system out of control, giving power to the few, oppressing many decent priests, violating Christian charity, and threatening the unity and Catholicity of the church.

Church Support
The annual rental of pews by individual families was the most common means of supporting the parish. Each pew was gated, and was kept empty if the family who rented it was not-present for a, specific service. Poorer families and servants could not afford to rent pews and so would have to stand in the back of the church or sit in rear balconies. Only pewholders could vote in parish elections or hold office as trustees. As a result, only a small minority really had, any say about parish affairs. This Is the reason that Bishop England very early banned from all now churches the installation and rental of gated pews. The practice continued, however, in some places, into the twentieth century.

Bishop England's Challenge

John England's challenge, and his opportunity, was to develop a new form of church organization. This would preserve the best of what had been learned from the trustee experience, while protecting the larger unity and charity of the church.

Since the problem was a national one and not confined to Charleston alone, England resolved to consult his brother bishops in the country. He hoped to persuade them to agree to a common solution that could be applied nationwide. However, his visits with the other bishops were not encouraging. Archbishop Maréchal, in particular, became a major stumbling block to joint action.

As senior American bishop, Maréchal had the responsibility, under the rules of the Council of Trent, to gather all the bishops in the country for a meeting every three years. But Maréchal was threatened by John England's energy and self-confidence. He feared England's possible interference in the affairs of the Baltimore Archdiocese, and he could not even imagine bishops sharing power with lay Catholics as Bishop England was suggesting. So Maréchal allowed anxiety to overwhelm his sense of duty, and he vetoed England's repeated requests for a national meeting of bishops.

Instead of encouraging a healthy search by Americans for an American solution to an American problem, Maréchal prevented a dialogue. He appealed to Rome, begging the pope for a blanket condemnation of all forms of trusteeism. Pope Pius VII responded carefully in 1822 with a letter entitled Non Sine Magno. In the letter, Pope Pius reaffirmed that church property should be subject to the local bishop's control. To England's great relief, however, the pope did not specify exactly how that control should be arranged.

In the face of both Maréchal's opposition and the other bishops' indecision England resolved to do what was possible under the circumstances. This was to seek a wise and fair solution within his own diocese and that he did with dispatch.

The Charleston Constitution
In September of 1822, after careful study and thorough consultation with many of the priests and lay people of his diocese, England issued an official document. It would establish the rules by which the diocese would be governed. The document was entitled "Constitution of the Roman Catholic Churches of the States of North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia; which are comprised in the Diocese of Charleston and Province of Baltimore." This new constitution had three key elements:

1. The bishop was assured ultimate control and ownership of all church property. But the day-to-day management of parish property was placed in the hands of a vestry, a committee consisting of the pastor and a group of lay persons elected by the people of the parish. England wanted to guarantee that these vestry elections would be open to more parishioners than the few wealthy pewholders who had controlled the earlier elections for trustees. He struck at one clear sign of wealthy privilege: he forbade the installation and rental of gated pews in any new churches.

2. A general fund was established to finance the various projects of the diocese. These projects included the building of schools; the care of the poor, the aged, and the sick; the support of missionaries; the training of priests; the building and maintenance of a cathedral; and any other projects that might arise. This fund was to be administered by a diocesan board which included the bishop, six priests, and twelve laypersons.

3. Each year, the bishop was required to meet with elected clergy delegates and elected lay delegates in an official convention. This body of delegates had several weighty responsibilities:

a.) to review and examine the expenditures made from the general fund during the preceding year;

b.) to set diocesan goals for the next year, and to authorize expenditures from the general fund to achieve those goals;

c.) to review and give direction to the temporal affairs of all diocesan institutions, and to appoint lay officers for those institutions.

In addition, the clergy delegates, acting alone, were responsible for conducting a confidential review of the spiritual affairs of all diocesan institutions, and for offering confidential advice to the bishop for their improvement.

Though not required to do so by the diocesan constitution, Bishop England also delivered to each year's convention a thorough annual report on the state of the diocese, and asked the body's advice concerning the future directions of the diocese.

The arrangement was an instant success. All the participants—bishop, clergy, and laity—had a share of both responsibility and authority. Their respective roles were set down in writing, and, as with the division of powers in the American constitution, each balanced the other. None of the three was powerless; none was vested with absolute power. In voluntarily sharing his authority rather than seeking to assert a claim to unlimited power, John England brought peace to his diocese. But he also secured for himself as bishop a moral power and authority which mere force could never have guaranteed. He had won power by giving it away!

So pleased was Bishop England with the swift success of his constitution that he soon journeyed north to offer his advice and mediation to the dioceses of New York and Philadelphia. Both dioceses were being tom apart by long-term unresolved battles with trustees. The other bishops, however, wanted no part of what they regarded as an insane scheme. Instead, they complained to Rome about Bishop England's meddling, and twice asked Rome to nullify England's diocesan constitution. Rome refused.

The Charleston constitution did not survive beyond England's death in 1842: it was quietly buried by his successor. However, it remained a model that the American church could not entirely forget. When the bishops of the world gathered at Vatican Council II in 1962-65, an American bishop held up John England's constitution as a model that the whole church would do well to study and imitate.

Terms

interdict: the act of closing a church and forbidding priests to offer anyone sacraments, except those in danger of death

suspension: the act of declaring that an institution is no longer effective or binding; to cause to stop for a time

excommunication: the declaration that a person is cut off from the church community and forbidden to receive its sacraments

temporal: concern with worldly affairs

Questions for Reflection

What were the four root causes of trusteeism in the Church in the United States?

What were the attributes and accomplishments of Bishop John England that distinguished his leadership?

What decisions can be made by the laity of a parish? What decisions are the responsibility of the clergy?

If a pastor does not share parish responsibilities with the parish members, what can the parishioners do about the situation?

www.sadlier.com/main.htm
Copyright © 2004
William H. Sadlier, Inc.
All rights reserved.